By Calixte Wondjè, Ph.D.

Keywords: Language Acquisition, Reading, Writing, Listening, Vocabulary, Languages, Second language (FSL), Acquisition, Bilingualism, Learning, Independent Learning, Speaking, Linguistic Competences, Influencing Factors.

Introduction

In this article, we are unveiling the dynamics of Second Language Acquisition (SLA) along with the key factors that shape the learning journey.

In a world increasingly interconnected by global communication and cultural exchange, mastering a second language has become more than just a desirable skill; it’s a gateway to new opportunities, deeper understanding, and personal growth. Whether you’re diving into English, French, Spanish, or any other foreign language, the journey of acquiring a second language is influenced by a multitude of factors that go beyond mere vocabulary and grammar. Understanding these dynamics is crucial for anyone looking to enhance their language learning experience.

We delve into the multifaceted aspects that impact second language acquisition. From the psychological underpinnings that affect motivation and cognitive processes to the sociolinguistic elements that shape language usage in different contexts, we will explore how these factors interplay to influence your ability to learn and master a new language. By examining both internal and external influences, we aim to provide a comprehensive overview of what truly drives successful language acquisition and how you can leverage these insights to accelerate your own learning journey.

Definitions

Before we jump into the heart of the topic, it is important to look at key definitions of concepts and notions that are used in the article.

Language Acquisition

In general, language acquisition refers to the process by which individuals learn and develop the ability to understand, produce, and use language. This process can occur at different stages of life, and it typically involves two main contexts:

First Language Acquisition

This is how infants and young children naturally learn their native language(s) from their environment, usually without formal instruction. It involves picking up linguistic skills through interaction with caregivers and exposure to language in everyday contexts.

Second Language Acquisition

This involves learning an additional language after the first language has been established. This can happen through various methods such as formal education, immersion, or self-study.

The study of language acquisition explores how people acquire language, the stages of this development, the cognitive and social factors involved, and the differences between acquiring a first and a second language.

Language Learning

Language learning is the process of acquiring the ability to understand, speak, read, or write in a language other than one’s native tongue. This can involve learning vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation, and cultural nuances. Language learning can occur through various methods, such as formal education, immersion, self-study, or interaction with native speakers. The goal is often to communicate effectively and understand the culture associated with the language.

Difference Between Language Acquisition and Language Learning

The terms “language acquisition” and “language learning” are often used interchangeably, but they refer to different processes:

Language Acquisition

a) Definition: This term generally refers to the subconscious process of acquiring a language naturally, as a child does. It involves internalizing the language through immersion and interaction, without explicit instruction.

b) Characteristics: It’s often associated with first language development in young children. It tends to be more implicit, occurring through exposure and practice in a natural setting, such as in the home or social environment.

c) Subconscious Process: This occurs naturally and effortlessly, much like how children learn their native language. It happens through immersion and social interaction. (Krashen cited by Y. Sun, 2019).

d) Natural Usage: It emphasizes the ability to communicate naturally and fluently without explicit study of rules. (Krashen cited by Y. Sun, 2019)

e) Goal: The aim is to achieve fluency and effective communication in the language (Krashen cited by Y. Sun, 2019).

f) Example: A child learning their native language by being exposed to it constantly through parents, siblings, and other interactions.

Language Learning

a) Definition: This term typically refers to the conscious, structured process of learning a language, often through formal instruction and explicit study. It involves understanding grammar rules, vocabulary, and practicing language skills deliberately.

b) Characteristics: It is more associated with second language acquisition or formal education in language studies. It often involves classroom settings, textbooks, and explicit teaching methods.

c) Conscious Process: This typically happens in structured environments like schools, where the focus is on explicit instruction. (Krashen cited by Y. Sun, 2019).

d) Focus on Rules: Learners study grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation systematically. (Krashen cited by Y. Sun, 2019).

e) Output Monitoring: According to Krashen, learning serves mainly to monitor and correct language use rather than to develop fluency. (Krashen cited by Y. Sun, 2019).

f) Example: An adult taking a Spanish class at a community college, studying grammar rules, vocabulary lists, and practicing speaking through exercises.

Consequently, while both processes aim to develop language skills, language acquisition is more natural and implicit, typically occurring in early childhood or through immersion, whereas language learning is more structured, conscious, and often involves formal education or study.

Acquisition

“Acquisition” generally refers to the act of obtaining or gaining something. It can be used in various contexts:

1) Business and Finance: In this context, an acquisition refers to a company purchasing or taking over another company. For example, if Company A buys Company B, this is considered an acquisition.

2) Education and Learning: Here, acquisition refers to the process of learning or acquiring knowledge and skills. For instance, language acquisition is the process by which people learn and understand a new language.

3) General Use: It can also simply mean the act of obtaining something, such as acquiring a new book, a piece of art, or any other object or asset.

The specifics can vary depending on the context, but the core idea is gaining or obtaining something.

Learning

Learning is the process of acquiring knowledge, skills, attitudes, or understanding through experience, study, or teaching. It involves the transformation of information and experiences into lasting changes in behavior, cognition, or understanding. Learning can be formal, such as in a classroom setting, or informal, such as through life experiences or self-directed exploration. It’s a fundamental aspect of human development and adaptation, enabling individuals to navigate and make sense of the world around them.

Second Language Acquisition

Second language acquisition (SLA) is defined in various ways by different experts (S. Khasinah, 2014 (that we cited already in a previous article)):

1) Longman Dictionary of Applied Linguistics (1985): SLA is the process of developing proficiency in a second or foreign language.

2) Rod Ellis (1986): SLA is a complex process influenced by numerous factors related to both the learner and the learning environment.

3) Victoria Fromkin et al. (2002): SLA involves acquiring a new language after the initial language acquisition is either underway or completed.

In summary, SLA is largely a subconscious process through which individuals learn a second language beyond their first.

In this article, by second language learning and acquisition, we mean the process of acquiring a second or foreign language and the influencing factors that affect this acquisition process and consequently the results. ‘’Acquisition’’ here is considered as the result, the achievement and influencing factors are what can make your second language learning a success or a failure.

In the first part of this article, we will describe experts’ opinions on factors that impact second or foreign language learning and acquisition. In the second part we will present what we call traditional factors influencing second or foreign language learning and acquisition and in the third part we present the impact of these factors on teaching and learning second or foreign languages.

Part 1 – Experts Views on Factors Influencing Second Language Learning and Acquisition

S. Khasinah

For S. Khasinah (2014), several factors significantly impact the process of learning a second language, including motivation, attitude, age, intelligence, aptitude, cognitive style, and personality. Experts argue that these elements play a crucial role in second language acquisition (SLA), with their influence varying based on the individual learner’s characteristics. These factors interact differently depending on the learner’s age, their attitude towards the language, their cognitive abilities, and their preferred learning methods.

S. Solano

Dr. S. Solano (n.d.) argues that language learners fall into two main categories. The first includes those actively pursuing bilingualism or additional language skills for personal, professional, or academic reasons, often through structured learning. The second category involves parents concerned about the impact of bilingualism on their children’s development. Research shows that bilingualism offers cognitive, cultural, and social benefits and does not harm primary language development. Understanding these benefits helps both learners and parents make informed decisions and foster positive attitudes towards acquiring new languages.

In the same article, Dr. S. Solano cites Dr. Stephen Krashen and Tracy Terrella who identified five stages of second language acquisition (SLA) that children go through when learning an additional language: pre-production, early production, speech emergence, intermediate fluency, and advanced fluency. These stages outline the progression of language skills learners typically experience. The time it takes to move through these stages varies depending on factors such as age, native language characteristics, learning environment, and motivation. Research into bilingualism and language acquisition explores how different environments and individual factors impact the learning process.

Y. Sun

Y. Sun (2019) affirms that globalization has heightened the recognition of the importance of learning a second language, leading many people to pursue it. Extensive research on second language acquisition (SLA) has been ongoing, focusing on understanding the factors that influence this complex and systematic process. Both social and individual factors play significant roles in SLA and can provide valuable insights for teachers and learners. Second Language Acquisition (SLA) is influenced by a variety of internal factors (age, attitude, personality, motivation, first language proficiency) and external factors (political factor, economic factor, technological factors) which all have an implication on teaching and learning a second language.

L. Par

L. Par (2023) explains that understanding the seven key factors that influence second language acquisition (SLA) and language learning is essential for achieving proficiency. These factors include cognitive abilities, emotional factors, and environmental influences, all of which interact to shape language skills. Identifying these factors is vital for both theoretical insights into language acquisition and for practical strategies in English language teaching (ELT). He identified several factors including: intelligence, IQ, aptitude, personality, motivation, attitude, learning styles and age of acquisition of the language.

H. Limin and C. Li

H. Limin, and C. Li, (2023) in a study, investigate how undergraduates at Zhaoqing University learn a second language, focusing on their learning methods, motivations, and influencing factors. Using qualitative research and semi-structured interviews, the study found that students typically use both teacher-guided and self-directed learning approaches. Motivations for learning a second language were divided into intrinsic (such as personal satisfaction and achievement) and extrinsic (such as external rewards and societal expectations). Key factors impacting second language acquisition included the learning environment, personal motivation, perceived competence, social norms, attitudes, expected outcomes, language aptitude, and learning habits.

G. Matrisciano

G. Matrisciano (2018) (analyzes the key factors influencing second language acquisition, evaluating whether these factors have a positive or negative effect. It begins by defining second language acquisition and differentiating it from related concepts like second language learning and foreign language acquisition.
Second Language Acquisition (SLA) is a complex and individualized process influenced by a variety of factors. Researchers observe that each learner develops unique knowledge of the target language, making SLA unpredictable and diverse. Factors affecting SLA include:

o External Factors: These involve the linguistic and social environment in which learning occurs, impacting how a language is acquired.

o Internal Factors: These relate to the learner’s existing knowledge and cognitive mechanisms that facilitate language learning.

o Individual Learner Factors: These include aspects like language aptitude and motivation, which can either enhance or hinder the acquisition process.

Matrisciano draws on foundational studies by Rod Ellis and Stephen Krashen, as well as more recent work by Keating and Wang, to provide a comprehensive overview of existing theories and insights. Matrisciano examines how these factors interact and affect each other and determines whether they have a positive or negative impact on learning. This is what Matrisciano drawn from each category.

External Factors

External factors include the social environment and input/interaction. Input refers to the language a learner is exposed to, which can be either non-interactive (e.g., reading materials) or interactive (e.g., conversations). For effective SLA, input should be comprehensible, engaging, authentic (real language used by native speakers), and abundant. Krashen’s concept of “optimal input” suggests that input must be understandable and interesting to enhance learning. Input that is too advanced or not engaging may hinder acquisition, while authentic and ample input promotes better learning outcomes.

Interaction in SLA involves both interpersonal (social communication) and intrapersonal (internal cognitive processes) aspects. The Interaction Hypothesis posits that engaging in interpersonal oral interactions, where learners negotiate meaning and solve communication problems, significantly benefits language acquisition. This means that the more learners participate in meaningful conversations, the more effectively and quickly they acquire the language. In other words, successful SLA depends on both high-quality, relevant input and effective interpersonal interactions.

The social environment encompasses aspects like gender, ethnicity, social class, and setting. Each of these can influence SLA success or failure. Gender’s influence is debated, with some studies suggesting women excel due to positive attitudes towards learning, while others show no significant difference. Social class affects SLA, with lower socioeconomic groups generally having less success, often due to lower motivation. Ethnic and social identity influence SLA, with learners closer to the foreign language culture performing better, and attitudes towards the new language and one’s own culture playing a role. The impact of gender is unclear, and ethnicity and social class affect attitudes and motivation, which in turn impact SLA. Social settings also matter: informal settings foster functional proficiency, while formal settings enhance linguistic accuracy. Input must be comprehensible, engaging, and ample to be effective, as per Krashen’s theory.

Internal Factors

Internal Factors involve the learner’s existing knowledge (e.g., first language) and internal mechanisms. These factors guide but don’t directly influence SLA. The relationship between first and second languages is still not fully understood.

Matrisciano explores factors influencing second language acquisition (SLA), focusing on learners’ existing knowledge and internal mechanisms for learning languages. It contrasts two main theories:

1) Domain-General Hypothesis: Language is learned through general cognitive processes

2) Language-Specific Hypothesis: Humans possess innate mechanisms for language learning, like Universal Grammar (UG), which provides a framework for understanding language.

Matrisciano also discusses how the first language (L1) affects the learning of a second language (L2). L1 can negatively impact L2 acquisition, leading to phenomena like foreign accents. The concept of “transfer” is introduced, where L1 strategies are initially used to learn L2 until they are deemed inadequate, prompting learners to adopt new strategies.

Historical theories include:

1) Behaviorism: Language learning through conditioning, where L1 habits hinder L2 learning.

2) Speech Processing Theory: L1 has a limited role in SLA; once L2 procedures are learned, L1 knowledge may influence them but doesn’t directly transfer.

Overall, while L1 plays a significant role in SLA, its influence is complex and diminishes as learners become more proficient. Internal cognitive mechanisms guide SLA, but their direct impact is less clear.

Individual Factors

Individual Factors include age, intelligence, aptitude, cognitive styles, motivation, attitudes, and personality. Age, motivation, and attitudes can either positively or negatively affect SLA. Intelligence and aptitude benefit SLA in formal settings but not in natural settings. Cognitive styles seem to have minimal impact.

Individual factors significantly influence second language acquisition (SLA), with both personal and general aspects playing roles.

While intelligence and aptitude affect formal language learning, they have less impact on natural language acquisition. Motivation and personality traits play more substantial roles in determining SLA success.

Part 2 – Traditional Factors Influencing Second Language Learning and Acquisition

Motivation

S. Khasinah (2014) affirms that motivation is crucial in second language acquisition (SLA). A literature review displays some expert’s opinions. According to Richards (1985), motivation is a key factor for success, as motivated learners are more likely to excel. Gardner and Lambert (1972) identify two types of motivation:

o Integrative Motivation: Driven by interest in the culture or people of the target language, aiming for cross-cultural communication.

o Instrumental Motivation: Focused on practical benefits like career advancement or academic success.

Integrative motivation is important for learning a language as a “foreign language,” while instrumental motivation is more relevant for a “second language” used in everyday life. Gardner (1979) links integrative motivation to “additive bilingualism” (adding a new language without losing the native one) and instrumental motivation to “subtractive bilingualism” (replacing the native language).

Y. Sun (2019) also mentions Gardner and Lambert view of motivation, adding that Integrative motivation involves a deep interest in connecting with speakers of the target language and appreciating their culture, leading to enthusiastic and active learning. Instrumental motivation, on the other hand, focuses on real profits such as job opportunities or social status, often resulting in a more passive approach to learning. For instance, nursing students might see language learning mainly as a tool for achieving career goals and may be less engaged in learning activities. In contrast, clinical majors aiming for further studies or international opportunities often exhibit higher levels of integrative motivation, showing greater enthusiasm and participation in language learning activities. Motivation is a key internal driver that influences an individual’s efforts and persistence toward achieving their goals. In the context of second language acquisition (SLA), motivation is crucial for effective learning. Strong motivation typically leads to active participation and higher learning efficiency, whereas weak motivation often results in lower engagement and reduced learning success.
Research on SLA has highlighted the significance of motivation, with some studies suggesting it is the second most important factor after aptitude.

In language learning, motivation is key and can be categorized into two main types: intrinsic and extrinsic (S. Khasinah, 2014 and L. Par, 2023).

o Intrinsic Motivation refers to engaging in language learning for personal satisfaction and joy. This motivation stems from a genuine interest in the language or its associated culture, intellectual challenge, or the pleasure derived from the learning process itself. Intrinsic motivation often leads to deeper engagement and long-term commitment. Research by Dörnyei (2005) shows that intrinsic motivation is a stronger and more enduring predictor of success in language learning compared to extrinsic motivation. (L. Par, 2023).

o Extrinsic Motivation, on the other hand, is driven by external rewards or recognition, such as grades or social approval. This type of motivation is particularly influential in the initial stages of learning. However, its effectiveness may diminish over time unless learners internalize these external incentives. (L. Par, 2023).

Research shows that intrinsic motivation often leads to better long-term success in language learning. (S Khasinah, 2014)

So, motivation significantly impacts language learning outcomes. Intrinsic motivation typically results in more sustained and independent learning efforts. It’s crucial for language teachers to foster a positive and supportive learning environment, as highlighted by Ushioda (2003) and Gardner and MacIntyre (1993). A motivating atmosphere can enhance learners’ engagement and proficiency, helping them achieve their language learning goals. (L. Par, 2023)

Dr. S. Solano states that motivation plays a crucial role in a child’s language acquisition, as it affects their interest and effort in learning a new language. According to Dörnyei (2019), an engaging classroom environment can boost a student’s motivation and enhance their learning experience. Teachers and parents can further support motivation by actively promoting language learning and bilingualism. Parents can help by discussing the benefits of being bilingual, connecting language experiences to the child’s future goals, and encouraging language use through community involvement or travel.

High motivation, whether integrative (for social connection) or instrumental (for practical goals) toward the language and its speakers lead to better SLA outcomes. (G. Matrisciano)

H. Limin, and C. Li. (2023), studying motivation and influencing factors of the second language acquisition at Zhaoqing University, categorize motivation into two types, each type with themes and sub-themes as in the following table:

In another table, Limin and Li describe the other SLA influencing factors with the same themes and sub-themes:

Attitude

S. Khasinah (2014) explains that attitudes in language learning involve beliefs about factors such as the target language’s culture, one’s own culture, teachers, and learning tasks. These attitudes are influenced by perceptions of difficulty, importance, and social status. Research identifies three main types of language attitudes: towards the community and its speakers, the learning process, and languages in general. Learners’ attitudes can be shaped by personal traits, interest in foreign languages, and experiences with courses and teachers. Positive attitudes usually result in better learning outcomes, and successful learners tend to develop more positive attitudes.

Y. Sun (2019) describes attitude by its components and impact on SLA:

o Components: Attitude in SLA includes cognitive (beliefs), emotional (likes and dislikes), and conative (intention and action) aspects.

o Impact: A positive attitude towards the target language promotes active communication and enhances SLA, while a negative attitude can hinder it. Attitudes are influenced by factors such as parents, friends, teachers, and the learning environment. In China, the attitude of learners is significantly impacted by classroom experiences, suggesting that making English classes more engaging could improve learning outcomes.

Leonardus Par (2023) affirms that attitude is a crucial factor in second language acquisition (SLA) and language learning. It encompasses learners’ emotions, beliefs, and evaluations about the target language, its culture, and the learning process. Positive attitudes, characterized by openness and enthusiasm, enhance motivation, engagement, and overall success in learning. Conversely, negative attitudes can lead to disinterest, frustration, and hinder progress. In English language teaching, teachers must address and positively influence learners’ attitudes by fostering a supportive environment, promoting cultural awareness, and using engaging methods to improve the learning experience.

G. Matrisciano (2018) states that positive attitudes toward the language and its speakers lead to better SLA outcomes.

Age

S. Khasinah (2014) explains that age influences second language learning in various ways. Children generally acquire languages more easily, achieving better pronunciation and grammatical skills if they start early. Lenneberg’s Critical Period Hypothesis suggests that language learning is most effective before puberty, but this idea is challenged by evidence showing that while children learn more slowly, they may achieve better long-term success due to longer exposure. Adolescents often learn grammar and vocabulary faster, and adults excel in understanding linguistic rules and syntax. Despite differences in learning speed and style, no single “critical period” exists; instead, there are varying periods of sensitivity to language learning. Research underscores that each age group has unique advantages and challenges, suggesting that teaching methods should be adapted to the learner’s age and needs.

Dr. S. Solano (n.d.) says that age plays a crucial role in language development, particularly in second language acquisition. According to the critical period hypothesis, the ability to learn a language diminishes significantly after childhood. Research by Hartshorne and colleagues (2018) indicates that children who start learning a language before age 10-12 tend to achieve better proficiency compared to those who begin later. Additionally, older learners often develop a more noticeable accent in the new language. While accents can be a concern for some, they are also seen as a natural and celebrated sign of multilingualism.

Y. Sun (2019) presents two thoughts about age as influencing factors.

o Keller’s View which means that both a learner’s ability and motivation are crucial for successful SLA, with age affecting the ability to learn a language.

o Research Findings that say, in general, children are seen as having an advantage over adults in SLA, particularly in pronunciation and accent, though adults may excel initially due to better cognitive abilities. The debate on the overall impact of age on language learning success continues.

L. Par (2023) focuses on ‘’Age of Acquisition’’. The Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH) posits that there is an optimal age range for learning a language, during which acquiring a first or second language is most effective. According to this theory, the brain undergoes changes during this critical period, making language learning more challenging after puberty. Research by Lenneberg (1967) indicates that children exposed to a second language before puberty can achieve native-like pronunciation. However, Johnson and Newport (1989) found that age affects pronunciation and grammar differently. Overall, starting language learning early enhances the likelihood of achieving native-like proficiency, though factors like individual differences, motivation, and environment also impact language learning success.

Another thought about ‘’Age’’ is that younger learners often excel in pronunciation due to the critical period hypothesis, but longer exposure is more crucial for overall proficiency. (G. Matrisciano, 2018).

Personality

Personality is a multifaceted and difficult-to-measure concept, with traits varying from person to person. In language learning, these traits significantly impact how well students learn a new language. Factors such as introversion/extroversion, self-esteem, inhibition, risk-taking, anxiety, and empathy play a crucial role in either aiding or obstructing the learning process. (S. Khasinah, 2014).

Personality traits, such as self-esteem, anxiety, and whether one is an extravert or introvert, significantly influence second language acquisition (SLA). Extraverts, who are generally optimistic, sociable, and eager to communicate, often excel in SLA because they actively seek out opportunities to practice the target language. In contrast, introverts may struggle due to their tendency to be less involved in social interactions and communication, which are crucial for language learning. Krashen’s research suggests that while both personality types have their strengths and weaknesses, extraverts generally perform better in SLA due to their proactive approach and willingness to engage with others, despite sometimes lacking attention to detailed language forms. (Y. Sun, 2019)

Personality significantly influences second language acquisition (SLA) and language learning outcomes. Traits such as extroversion and introversion impact how individuals engage with the language learning process. Extroverted learners often excel in social interactions and conversations, leading to better language proficiency, while introverted learners may prefer solitary study methods. Research by Dörnyei (2005) and the Socio-Educational Model by Gardner and Lambert (1972) highlight that extroversion and positive attitudes towards the target culture enhance language acquisition. Additionally, traits like openness and extroversion correlate with multilingualism and high language proficiency (Dewaele and Furnham, 2000). Tailoring language teaching approaches to match learners’ personality traits can help optimize their learning experiences and outcomes. (L. Par, 2023).

G. Matrisciano (2018) explains ‘’Personality Traits’’: Extroverted learners often progress faster due to increased interaction. Traits like inhibition and anxiety affect SLA, with high inhibition potentially hindering progress and anxiety having both positive (facilitative) and negative (debilitative) effects.

Aptitude

Aptitude in language learning refers to an individual’s inherent ability to acquire a new language. It involves skills like recognizing sound patterns, understanding grammar, and learning new languages. Early aptitude tests include Carroll and Sapon’s Modern Language Aptitude Test and Pimsleur’s Language Aptitude Battery. Carroll identified four key factors in language aptitude: phonemic coding ability, grammatical sensitivity, inductive language learning ability, and rote learning ability. Skehan later expanded this by including general language processing and handling de-contextualized language. Cummins introduced the concepts of cognitive/academic language proficiency (CALP) and basic interpersonal communication skills (BICS), linking CALP to intelligence and BICS to aptitude. While there is debate about the role of intelligence in language learning, high language aptitude generally leads to quicker and easier acquisition. Researchers advocate for updated tests that assess both cognitive and communicative skills. (S. Khasinah, 2014)

Aptitude refers to a person’s natural ability or competence to perform a certain task. In language learning, a child’s aptitude affects their language acquisition: higher aptitude generally leads to better language learning, while lower aptitude can limit language learning potential. (Dr. S. Solano, n.d.)

Aptitude, particularly language aptitude, significantly influences second language acquisition (SLA). Language aptitude refers to the natural ability to learn languages, involving skills such as recognizing speech sounds, understanding grammar, and remembering vocabulary. According to Carroll (1965), individuals with high language aptitude are generally more successful in language learning, grasping vocabulary and grammatical rules more easily. Skehan (1989) supports this by noting a positive relationship between language aptitude and early language proficiency.

For instance, a learner with high aptitude quickly masters pronunciation, grammar, and vocabulary, while a learner with lower aptitude might struggle and require more time and effort to achieve similar proficiency. Overall, a person’s level of language aptitude plays a crucial role in their language learning success, with those possessing high aptitude having a natural advantage. Recognizing and leveraging one’s language aptitude can enhance the effectiveness of learning a new language. (L. Par, 2023).

While intelligence affects general academic abilities, aptitude pertains to specific language skills. Like intelligence, aptitude is more influential in formal educational settings than in informal or natural language learning environments. (G. Matrisciano, 2018)

Learning Styles

Learning styles, or cognitive styles, refer to the preferred methods individuals use to learn. When learning a second language (L2), different learners have distinct preferences. The VARK Model represents the 4 learning styles.

Types of Learning Styles (VARK Model) (Reid (1987) cited by L. Par, 2023 and S. Khasinah, 2014):

o Visual Learners: They learn through seeing. They prefer visual aids like images, charts, and diagrams. They benefit from reading written materials and watching videos. Visual learners excel in connecting words with images and improving vocabulary through visual stimuli. Visual learners retain information better with visual aids.

o Auditory Learners: They Learn best through listening. They thrive on spoken explanations and discussions. Activities like listening to podcasts or participating in verbal exchanges are effective for them. Audio learners prefer listening to explanations of grammar rules.

o Kinesthetic Learners: They learn through hands-on experiences and physical activities. Interactive methods like role-playing or movement-based activities help them grasp language skills. The Total Physical Response (TPR) method is particularly beneficial for these learners. Kinesthetic learners benefit from writing and physical activity.

o Tactile Learners: They learn through touching and manipulating materials. Reading/Writing Learners prefer written information and excel in reading, writing, and note-taking. They benefit from traditional methods like reading texts, writing essays, and creating vocabulary lists.

These styles are influenced by factors such as genetics, culture, and past experiences. Tailoring teaching methods to these styles can improve learning outcomes.

Learning styles are also linked to brain dominance:

o Left-brain dominant individuals are analytical and verbal.

o Right-brain dominant individuals are intuitive and holistic.

Understanding and adapting to these styles can enhance educational effectiveness. However, research indicates that cognitive style alone is not a definitive predictor of success in second language acquisition (SLA). Factors such as motivation and attitude also play crucial roles in achieving success. (S. Khasinah, 2014).

Matrisciano (2018) thinks that cognitive style has a minimal direct impact on SLA but influences attitudes and motivation.

Intelligence

Intelligence is traditionally defined by Ellis (1985) as the general ability to excel in academic skills, particularly linguistic and logical-mathematical abilities. High IQ scores are associated with better performance in academic tasks, including language learning. However, this measure of intelligence does not necessarily predict success in informal language use or social contexts, as noted by Spolsky (1989). Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences theory (1983) broadens the definition of intelligence to include eight distinct types: linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalistic. Gardner suggests that these intelligences develop independently, and that education should address and foster all types to enhance learning outcomes, allowing students to leverage their individual strengths. (S. Khasinah, 2014).

Intelligence significantly impacts second language acquisition (SLA) and language learning. It encompasses various cognitive abilities such as problem-solving, reasoning, memory, and learning aptitude. High analytical skills, for instance, can enhance one’s ability to grasp complex grammatical structures.

Howard Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences, proposed in 1983, broadens the concept of intelligence beyond traditional IQ measures. Gardner identifies several types of intelligence, including linguistic intelligence, which is crucial for language learning. His theory suggests that people have different kinds of intelligence: linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, interpersonal, intrapersonal, bodily-kinesthetic, and naturalistic, each contributing to various aspects of learning and problem-solving.

Intelligence affects language learning success in several ways. Higher cognitive abilities can enhance understanding of grammar and vocabulary. Gardner’s concept of linguistic intelligence is crucial for language acquisition. However, intelligence is not static; it can improve with learning experiences, as demonstrated by Flynn’s research showing rising average IQ scores over generations. (L. Par, 2023).

Intelligence affects general academic abilities and is more influential in formal educational settings than in informal or natural language learning environments. (G. Matrisciano, 2018).

Low and High IQ Learners and Language Learning

The relationship between IQ and language learning is nuanced. Individuals with high IQs often excel in grasping linguistic subtleties and abstract concepts, which can aid their language acquisition. However, high IQ alone doesn’t guarantee language proficiency; factors like motivation, practice, and exposure are also crucial.

Conversely, those with lower IQs might face more challenges, but they can still achieve language proficiency with effective learning strategies and dedication.

In conclusion, while IQ can influence language learning, success depends on a combination of IQ, learning strategies, effort, and environment. (L. Par, 2023).

Cognitive Abilities

Cognitive abilities can influence a person’s academic performance and their capacity to learn a new language. Research by Woumans et al. (2019) highlights that strong executive functions in the brain are linked to better vocabulary acquisition in a second language. Additionally, cognitive functions indirectly affect language development. Wilkinson et al. (2006) found that English learners (ELs) with disabilities require specialized instruction to effectively learn a second language and academic content. Children with cognitive disabilities can still learn a new language with tailored instruction. (Dr. S. Solano, n.d.).

Self-Esteem

Self-esteem and self-confidence are vital for success in various activities. Coopersmith (1967) described self-esteem as how individuals assess their own worth, affecting their feelings of approval and belief in their own abilities. Social comparison theory (Williams & Burden, 1997) suggests that classroom interactions shape learners’ self-perception and achievement. Teachers are crucial in creating a supportive environment to boost students’ confidence. Research shows a positive connection between high self-esteem and academic success, emphasizing its importance in language learning and overall achievement. (S. Khasinah, 2014).

Inhibition and Risk-Taking

Inhibition, tied to self-esteem, impacts language learning. Those with higher self-esteem usually have fewer inhibitions, leading to greater success in learning new languages. Inhibition can prevent risk-taking, essential for making mistakes and learning. This challenge is greater for adults, who are often more self-conscious than children and thus find it harder to adopt new languages and accents. In contrast, children are generally more open to linguistic changes and influences. (S. Khasinah, 2014).

Anxiety

Anxiety significantly impacts foreign language learning, influencing students’ experiences and outcomes. According to Brown (1994), anxiety involves feelings of uneasiness, frustration, self-doubt, and worry. MacIntyre and Gardner (1991) differentiate between trait anxiety (general predisposition) and state anxiety (specific to certain situations), highlighting three main types of foreign language anxiety: communication apprehension, fear of negative social evaluation, and test anxiety. While high levels of anxiety are typically harmful, moderate anxiety, or facilitative anxiety, can be beneficial for learning. Bailey (1983) notes that factors such as classroom competitiveness, student-teacher relationships, and testing can increase state anxiety. (S. Khasinah, 2014).

Empathy

Empathy, the ability to understand and share others’ feelings, is key in learning foreign languages, especially for effective communication. While empathy’s impact on achieving native-like pronunciation is less clear, it’s vital for overall language acquisition. Research indicates that personality traits influence language learning success, but these traits are dynamic and challenging to measure. Traits like talkativeness can be beneficial, but introverted students can also excel with dedication and motivation. Teachers should consider students’ personalities to adapt their teaching methods and foster a supportive learning environment. (S. Khasinah, 2014).

Part 3 – Other Factors Affecting Second Language Learning and Acquisition

Beyond the second language acquisition traditional influencing factors, there are what we call modern factors that are not commonly known in the language acquisition universe, but are raised by few experts.

Home Environment

Home environment refers to Quantity of Input and Bilingualism.

Quantity of Input: According to Pearson (2007), the amount of language exposure a child receives at home significantly impacts language development. More exposure leads to better language use, while limited exposure can result in language loss.
Parental Influence: Parents who frequently use the language with their child and engage in activities like reading can enhance language skills. Reading exposes children to vocabulary and language structures that aren’t always part of everyday conversation.

Bilingualism: Parents who promote and maintain multiple languages in the home support bilingualism and overall language proficiency. (Dr. S. Solano, n.d.)

Environment

Environment refers to Quality and Quantity of Instruction and Instructional Programming from Dr. S. Solano’s view.

Quality and Quantity of Instruction: Effective language acquisition in schools depends on the quality of grade-level instruction and the instructional programming provided.
Grade-Level Instruction: Using appropriate materials for a child’s language development level helps meet their needs and challenges them academically.
Instructional Programming: Dual-language immersion programs are highly effective, allowing children to achieve high proficiency in both languages. Co-teaching, where teachers provide instruction in small or large groups, is also beneficial. Pull-out programs, where students are removed from regular classes for language instruction, are less effective but sometimes necessary for accelerated learning. (S. Solano, n.d.)

First Language Proficiency

The proficiency in a learner’s first language (L1) significantly affects their success in learning a second language (SLA). This is because language transfer occurs, where learners apply structures and strategies from their L1 to the new language. Language transfer can be positive, where similarities between languages aid learning, or negative, where differences create obstacles. Both types of transfer often occur simultaneously. While negative transfer can hinder learning, understanding and addressing it can help transform it into positive transfer. Overall, leveraging positive transfer and addressing negative transfer can enhance SLA efficiency.

The development of language is closely tied to social life and the broader social environment. The political factor plays a significant role in shaping language learning trends. For instance, China’s Reform and Opening policy has facilitated international travel and access to global news, which has boosted interest in learning foreign languages, particularly English. This has led to curriculum reforms in schools and universities and the rise of private language institutions like Crazy English and New Oriental. However, this enthusiasm for English has also led to some issues, such as the “aphasia for Chinese culture,” where learners neglect Chinese cultural elements in their English studies and struggle to express Chinese culture effectively in English. Additionally, political hostility between countries can create barriers to mutual cultural and linguistic exchange. (Y. Sun, 2019).

Political Factor

The development of language is closely tied to social life and the broader social environment. The political factor plays a significant role in shaping language learning trends. For instance, China’s Reform and Opening policy has facilitated international travel and access to global news, which has boosted interest in learning foreign languages, particularly English. This has led to curriculum reforms in schools and universities and the rise of private language institutions like Crazy English and New Oriental. However, this enthusiasm for English has also led to some issues, such as the “aphasia for Chinese culture,” where learners neglect Chinese cultural elements in their English studies and struggle to express Chinese culture effectively in English. Additionally, political hostility between countries can create barriers to mutual cultural and linguistic exchange. (Y. Sun, 2019).

Economic Factor

The economic factor significantly influences language acquisition and cultural engagement.

A country’s economic strength affects its political and cultural spheres. In economically underdeveloped countries, cultural values may be overlooked, leading to a strong interest in learning about other cultures. This desire can drive individuals to learn new languages, such as English, to improve job prospects and gain access to better opportunities. In contrast, wealthier nations can invest more in education, including language learning. (Y. Sun, 2019).

Technological Factor

Technological factor meaningfully impacts language acquisition and cultural engagement.

Economic development also drives technological advancement. For example, in the United States, a leader in technology, the dominance of American computer programs has made English essential for operating computers and solving tech-related issues. This technological influence has increased the global demand for English, as evidenced by the widespread integration of English courses in schools and the proliferation of English language institutions. (Y. Sun, 2019).

Part 4 – Influencing Factors Impacts on Teaching and Learning Second Language

Impacts on Teaching Second Language

Below are actions recommended to improve second language teaching to counter negative effects of influencing factors on second language learning and acquisition.

Create a Language Environment

Language environments are environments that:

o Focus on Acquisition Over Learning: Emphasize active participation and practical use rather than just memorizing vocabulary and grammar.
o Enhance Language Input: Use cultural context and multimedia to make learning more engaging and reduce resistance.
o Encourage Practice: Facilitate activities that allow learners to apply what they’ve learned in real contexts.

Provide Comprehensible Input

Provide comprehensible input involves:

o Understandable Material: Ensure that language input is interesting and easy to understand, focusing on listening and reading to help learners grasp the language naturally.

Give Constructive Feedback

Give constructive feedback includes:

o Assess and Guide Learning: Offer both praise and constructive criticism to help learners understand their progress and areas needing improvement. Effective feedback boosts motivation and enhances learning. (Y. Sun, 2019.)

Impacts on Learning Second Language

Below are actions recommended to improve second language learning to counter negative effects of influencing factors on second language learning and acquisition.

Setting Specific Goals

Learners who set clear, specific goals are often more motivated in learning a second language. This motivation drives their learning efficiency. For example, if a learner’s goal is to study abroad, they should immerse themselves in the target culture and participate in activities like Oral English Contests to improve their spoken English. Conversely, if the goal is to pass exams like national or international language exams, the learner should concentrate on skills relevant to the test, such as writing, reading, and translating.

Maintaining a Positive Attitude

Learners vary in their efficiency due to individual differences. It’s important for learners to acknowledge and accept these differences. When facing challenges or not meeting expectations, learners should analyze the reasons and continue progressing without becoming discouraged or giving up. A positive attitude involves recognizing these differences and addressing problems constructively to achieve success in language learning.

Improving First Language Proficiency

Improving first language proficiency is crucial for effective second language acquisition (SLA). A strong command of one’s mother tongue can positively influence SLA by enhancing language transfer and minimizing negative transfer. This means that a well-developed first language provides a better foundation for learning a second language, leading to more significant achievements in SLA. To achieve this, individuals should focus on improving their mother tongue skills and understanding the differences between their first and target languages.

Carrying Out More Reading

Reading is essential for enhancing pragmatic competence and expanding knowledge, which benefits future learning. There are two main types of reading:

o Extensive Reading: Involves reading a broad range of materials in the target language, such as literature, news, and cultural texts. This type of reading helps learners stay updated and improve their language skills through exposure to various contexts and content.
o Classified Reading: Focuses on reading specific categories of texts with goals. This method helps advanced learners summarize and refine their knowledge and improve language accuracy efficiently.

Both types of reading contribute to better language proficiency and pragmatic understanding. (Y. Sun, 2019.)

Part 5 – Ways of Learning and Acquiring Second Language

During their study, H. Limin, and C. Li. (2023) observed that undergraduates at Zhaoqing University learn English second language in two ways: teacher guided learning and self-directed learning.

Teacher Guided Learning

Teacher Guided Learning includes: classroom teaching and post-class exercises.

Classroom teaching 

Classroom teaching is a structured and interactive way to learn English as a second language (ESL). It combines several key elements to create an effective learning environment:

1) Structured Curriculum: Classroom teaching typically follows a curriculum that includes various components such as grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation, reading, writing, listening, and speaking. This structure helps learners build a solid foundation and progressively advance their skills.

2) Interactive Activities: Teachers use a variety of interactive activities to engage students and reinforce learning. This can include group work, role-plays, discussions, games, and hands-on projects. These activities help students practice English in practical, real-life contexts.

3) Guided Practice: In a classroom setting, learners benefit from guided practice where the teacher provides support and feedback. This can include exercises to practice grammar, speaking drills, and writing assignments, all of which are tailored to the learners’ proficiency levels.

4) Immediate Feedback: Teachers can give immediate feedback on errors and provide explanations to help students understand and correct their mistakes. This real-time feedback is crucial for improving language skills and boosting confidence.

5) Cultural Exposure: Classroom teaching often incorporates cultural elements, helping students understand not just the language but also the cultural contexts in which it is used. This can include discussions about customs, traditions, and societal norms in English-speaking countries.

6) Peer Interaction: Learning in a classroom setting provides opportunities for peer interaction, which is valuable for practicing conversational English and learning from fellow students. Group work and pair activities encourage communication and collaborative learning.

7) Motivation and Accountability: Being part of a classroom helps students stay motivated and accountable. The regular schedule and presence of a teacher and peers can create a sense of commitment and encouragement.

8) Resources and Materials: Teachers use a range of resources such as textbooks, multimedia, and language learning apps to enhance the learning experience. These materials provide diverse ways to engage with the language and practice different skills.

Classroom teaching offers a comprehensive, supportive, and interactive environment for learning English, catering to different learning styles and needs while fostering language acquisition through structured and dynamic methods.

Post-class exercises

Post-class exercises are an important part of second language learning as they reinforce what was covered in class and help build proficiency through practical application. Here are some effective types of post-class exercises:

Review and Reinforcement:

o Vocabulary Drills: Use flashcards or spaced repetition systems (SRS) to review new vocabulary. Apps like Anki or Quizlet can be very helpful.
o Grammar Exercises: Complete worksheets or online exercises that focus on specific grammar points covered in class. Websites like Grammarly or Lingolia offer practice activities.

Practical Application:

o Writing Tasks: Write short essays, diary entries, or social media posts using the new language. Focus on applying recently learned grammar and vocabulary.
o Speaking Practice: Record yourself speaking about a topic or responding to prompts. You can also use language exchange apps like Tandem or HelloTalk to practice with native speakers.

Listening and Comprehension:

o Listening Exercises: Listen to podcasts, watch videos, or follow news in the target language. Choose content relevant to your current level and comprehension goals.
o Transcription Practice: Transcribe short audio clips or dialogues. This helps improve listening skills and attention to detail.

Interactive Activities:

o Language Games: Engage in online language games or quizzes. Games like Duolingo or Babbel often have fun, interactive exercises.
o Role-Playing: Simulate real-life situations, such as ordering food in a restaurant or asking for directions. Practicing these scenarios with a partner or tutor can be very effective.

Reading Practice:

o Extensive Reading: Read books, articles, or blogs in the target language. Choose materials appropriate for your level to build reading skills and expand vocabulary.
o Reading Comprehension Questions: After reading a passage, answer questions to check understanding and retention.

Cultural Exposure:

o Explore Media: Watch movies, TV shows, or listen to music in the target language. Pay attention to idiomatic expressions, cultural references, and pronunciation.
o Cultural Activities: Engage in activities related to the culture of the language, like cooking traditional recipes or celebrating cultural festivals.

Peer Interaction:

o Language Exchange: Partner with a fellow learner or a native speaker for regular practice. Exchange feedback and discuss topics of interest.
o Study Groups: Join or form study groups to review material, practice conversations, and share learning strategies.

Incorporating these types of exercises into your routine can help solidify your language skills and make learning more dynamic and engaging.

Self-Directed Learning

Self-directed second language learning includes the following activities:

o Memorizing English words
o Reading English originals
o Reading English magazines
o Watching English speeches and debates
o Doing exercises (vocabulary, translation, writing)
o Conversing with friends or foreigners
o Watching English movies and TV shows
o Listening to English songs
o Doing English dubbing
o Taking online class

Second language self-directed learning refers to the process by which individuals take initiative and control over their own language learning outside of a formal educational setting. It involves setting personal goals, choosing learning resources, and managing the pace and content of their studies. Below is a list of things recommended to second language self-learners that will set them for success.

o Goal Setting: Learners start by defining what they want to achieve. This could range from becoming conversational in a new language to achieving fluency or passing a proficiency exam.
o Resource Selection: They choose from a variety of resources based on their learning preferences and goals. This might include textbooks, online courses, language learning apps, podcasts, videos, or language exchange partners.
o Learning Methods: Individuals often adopt different methods such as self-paced study, immersion through media, practice with native speakers, or using spaced repetition systems (SRS) for vocabulary building.
o Practice and Application: Active practice is crucial. Learners might practice speaking, writing, listening, and reading in the target language, using the resources they’ve chosen. This often involves engaging in real-life conversations, consuming media in the language, and writing journals or essays.
o Assessment and Reflection: Regular self-assessment helps learners gauge their progress. They might use online quizzes, language tests, or reflect on their improvement in conversations or writing.
o Adjustment and Flexibility: Based on their assessments and reflections, learners might adjust their methods, set new goals, or try different resources to address areas of difficulty or to stay motivated.

Self-directed learning requires discipline, motivation, and resourcefulness, as it puts the learner in charge of their educational journey. The flexibility it offers can be a major advantage, allowing learners to tailor their studies to their specific needs and interests.

Conclusion

Language learning is often considered a part of language acquisition, but they’re not exactly the same thing. Language acquisition generally refers to the natural, subconscious process of picking up a language, often as a child learns their first language. This happens through immersion and interaction rather than formal instruction.

Language learning, on the other hand, is usually a more conscious and deliberate process. It often involves structured education and practice, like studying grammar rules, memorizing vocabulary, and practicing speaking and writing.

In short, language acquisition is more about how we naturally pick up language skills, while language learning is about the intentional, often formal, methods we use to gain language proficiency.

Individual factors like motivation, attitude, age, intelligence, aptitude, learning style, and personality significantly impact second language acquisition (SLA). These elements can either facilitate or obstruct the learning process, making them essential in influencing the success or failure of learning a second language.

SLA is influenced by a range of interconnected factors. Recent research by educators and linguists has led to valuable suggestions for improving SLA. Teachers should tailor their approach to individual differences and utilize various tools like multimedia and internet resources to enhance learning. Learners should be aware of both personal and social factors affecting SLA and leverage these to optimize their language acquisition success.

Sources

1. Dr. Sugely (soo-heh-lee) Solano (n.d.). Factors that Influence Second Language Acquisition. Benefits of Bilingualism, Bilingual Education. https://raisinglanguagelearners.com/factors-that-influence-second-language-acquisition/  
2. Giovanna Matrisciano (2018). Factors influencing Second Language Acquisition. https://www.academia.edu/37853031/Factors_influencing_Second_Language_Acquisition
3. He, Limin, and Chunming Li. 2023. “Motivation and Influencing Factors of the Second Language Acquisition Based on the Grounded Theory”. Asian Journal of Education and Social Studies 48 (2):92-113. https://doi.org/10.9734/ajess/2023/v48i21055
4. Leonardus Par (2023). ELT Specialist Indonesia. Maximizing Language Success: Revealing 7 Key Factors Influencing SLA and Language Learning. https://eltspecialistindonesia.wordpress.com/2023/12/12/revealing-7-key-factors-influencing-language-learning/
5. Yuefang Sun (2019). An Analysis on the Factors Affecting Second Language Acquisition and Its Implications for Teaching and Learning. School of Foreign Languages, Jining Medical University, Jining, Shandong Province, China. Journal of Language Teaching and Research, Vol. 10, No. 5, pp. 1018-1022, September 2019. https://www.academypublication.com/issues2/jltr/vol10/05/14.pdf